5 Embedded SQL

5.1.1 Output Versus Input Host Variables

Depending on how they are used, host variables are called output or input host variables. Host variables in the INTO clause of a SELECT or FETCH statement are called output host variables because they hold column values output by Oracle. Oracle assigns the column values to corresponding output host variables in the INTO clause.

All other host variables in a SQL statement are called input host variables because your program inputs their values to Oracle. For example, you use input host variables in the VALUES clause of an INSERT statement and in the SET clause of an UPDATE statement. They are also used in the WHERE, HAVING, and FOR clauses. In fact, input host variables can appear in a SQL statement wherever a value or expression is allowed.

You cannot use input host variables to supply SQL keywords or the names of database objects. Thus, you cannot use input host variables in data definition statements (sometimes called DDL) such as ALTER, CREATE, and DROP. In the following example, the DROP TABLE statement is invalid:

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION END-EXEC.
         01 TABLE-NAME    PIC X(30) VARYING.
          ... 
     EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION END-EXEC. 
     ...
     DISPLAY 'Table name? '. 
     ACCEPT TABLE-NAME. 
     EXEC SQL DROP TABLE :TABLE-NAME END-EXEC.
*  -- host variable not allowed 

EXEC SQL SELECT ENAME, EMPNO INTO :NAME, :NUMBER
         FROM EMP
         ORDER BY :ORD
     END-EXEC.

Before Oracle executes a SQL statement containing input host variables, your program must assign values to them. Consider the following example:

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION END-EXEC. 
 01     EMP-NUMBER   PIC S9(4) COMP. 
 01     EMP-NAME     PIC X(20) VARYING.
     EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION END-EXEC. 
     ...
* -- get values for input host variables 
     DISPLAY 'Employee number? '. 
     ACCEPT EMP-NUMBER. 
     DISPLAY 'Employee name? '. 
     ACCEPT EMP-NAME. 
     EXEC SQL INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, ENAME) 
         VALUES (:EMP-NUMBER, :EMP-NAME) 
     END-EXEC. 

Notice that the input host variables in the VALUES clause of the INSERT statement are prefixed with colons.

5.2.1 Input Variables

For input host variables, the values your program can assign to an indicator variable have the following meanings:

5.2.2 Output Variables

For output host variables, the values Oracle can assign to an indicator variable have the following meanings:

Remember, an indicator variable must be declared as a 2-byte integer and, in SQL statements, must be prefixed with a colon and appended to its host variable (unless you use the keyword INDICATOR).

5.2.3 Inserting NULLs

You can use indicator variables to insert NULLs. Before the insert, for each column you want to be NULL, set the appropriate indicator variable to -1, as shown in the following example:

MOVE -1 TO IND-COMM.
      EXEC SQL INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, COMM) 
          VALUES (:EMP-NUMBER, :COMMISSION:IND-COMM)
      END-EXEC. 

The indicator variable IND-COMM specifies that a NULL is to be stored in the COMM column.

You can hard-code the NULL instead, as follows:

EXEC SQL INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, COMM) 
          VALUES (:EMP-NUMBER, NULL)
      END-EXEC. 

But this is less flexible.

Typically, you insert NULLs conditionally, as the next example shows:

DISPLAY 'Enter employee number or 0 if not available: '
          WITH NO ADVANCING.
      ACCEPT EMP-NUMBER. 
      IF EMP-NUMBER = 0
         MOVE -1 TO IND-EMPNUM 
      ELSE 
          MOVE 0 TO IND-EMPNUM
      END-IF.
      EXEC SQL INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, SAL) 
         VALUES (:EMP-NUMBER:IND-EMPNUM, :SALARY)
      END-EXEC. 

5.2.4 Handling Returned NULLs

You can also use indicator variables to manipulate returned NULLs, as the following example shows:

EXEC SQL SELECT ENAME, SAL, COMM 
         INTO :EMP-NAME, :SALARY, :COMMISSION:IND-COMM 
          FROM EMP
          WHERE EMPNO = :EMP_NUMBER
      END-EXEC. 
      IF IND-COMM = -1 
          MOVE SALARY TO PAY. 
*   -- commission is null; ignore it 
      ELSE 
          ADD SALARY TO COMMISSION GIVING PAY.
      END-IF. 

5.2.5 Fetching NULLs

Using the precompiler option UNSAFE_NULL=YES, you can select or fetch NULLs into a host variable that lacks an indicator variable, as the following example shows:

* --  assume that commission is NULL 
      EXEC SQL SELECT ENAME, SAL, COMM 
         INTO :EMP-NAME, :SALARY, :COMMISSION 
         FROM EMP 
         WHERE EMPNO = :EMP-NUMBER
      END-EXEC. 

SQLCODE in the SQLCA is set to zero indicating that Oracle executed the statement without detecting an error or exception.

Without an indicator variable there is no way to know whether or not a NULL was returned. The value of the host variable is undefined. If you do not use indicator variables, set the precompiler option UNSAFE_NULL=YES. Oracle therefore advises that UNSAFE_NULL=YES only be used to upgrade existing programs and that indicator variables be used for all new programs.

When UNSAFE_NULL=NO, if you select or fetch NULLs into a host variable that lacks an indicator variable, Oracle issues an error message.

For more information, see "UNSAFE_NULL".

5.2.6 Testing for NULLs

You can use indicator variables in the WHERE clause to test for NULLs, as the following example shows:

EXEC SQL SELECT ENAME, SAL 
         INTO :EMP-NAME, :SALARY 
         FROM EMP 
         WHERE :COMMISSION:IND-COMM IS NULL ... 

However, you cannot use a relational operator to compare NULLs with each other or with other values. For example, the following SELECT statement fails if the COMM column contains one or more NULLs:

EXEC SQL SELECT ENAME, SAL 
         INTO :EMP-NAME, :SALARY 
          FROM EMP 
          WHERE COMM = :COMMISSION:IND-COMM
      END-EXEC. 

The next example shows how to compare values for equality when some of them might be NULLs:

EXEC SQL SELECT ENAME, SAL 
         INTO :EMP_NAME, :SALARY 
         FROM EMP 
         WHERE (COMM = :COMMISSION) OR ((COMM IS NULL) AND 
             (:COMMISSION:IND-COMM IS NULL))
      END-EXEC. 

5.2.7 Fetching Truncated Values

If a value is truncated when fetched into a host variable, no error is generated. In all cases a WARNING will be signalled (see "Warning Flags"). if an indicator variable is used with a character string, when a value is truncated, the indicator variable is set to the length of the value in the database. Note that no warning is flagged if a numeric value is truncated.

5.3.1 Selecting Rows

Querying the database is a common SQL operation. To issue a query you use the SELECT statement. In the following example, you query the EMP table:

EXEC SQL SELECT ENAME, JOB, SAL + 2000 
         INTO :emp_name, :JOB-TITLE, :SALARY
         FROM EMP 
         WHERE EMPNO = :EMP-NUMBER
      END-EXEC. 

The column names and expressions following the keyword SELECT make up the select list. The select list in our example contains three items. Under the conditions specified in the WHERE clause (and following clauses, if present), Oracle returns column values to the host variables in the INTO clause. The number of items in the select list should equal the number of host variables in the INTO clause, so there is a place to store every returned value.

In the simplest case, when a query returns one row, its form is that shown in the last example (in which EMPNO is a unique key). However, if a query can return more than one row, you must fetch the rows using a cursor or select them into a host array.

If a query is written to return only one row but might actually return several rows, the result depends on how you specify the option SELECT_ERROR. When SELECT_ERROR=YES (the default), Oracle issues an message if more than one row is returned.

When SELECT_ERROR=NO, a row is returned and Oracle generates no error.

5.3.2 Inserting Rows

You use the INSERT statement to add rows to a table or view. In the following example, you add a row to the EMP table:

EXEC SQL INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, DEPTNO) 
         VALUES (:EMP_NUMBER, :EMP-NAME, :SALARY, :DEPT-NUMBER)
      END-EXEC. 

Each column you specify in the column list must belong to the table named in the INTO clause. The VALUES clause specifies the row of values to be inserted. The values can be those of constants, host variables, SQL expressions, or pseudocolumns, such as USER and SYSDATE.

The number of values in the VALUES clause must equal the number of names in the column list. You can omit the column list if the VALUES clause contains a value for each column in the table in the same order they were defined by CREATE TABLE, but this is not recommended because a table's definition can change.

5.3.3 DML Returning Clause

The INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements can have an optional DML returning clause which returns column value expressions expr, into host variables hv, with host indicator variables iv. The returning clause has this syntax:

{RETURNING | RETURN} {expr [,expr]}
    INTO {:hv [[INDICATOR]:iv] [, :hv [[INDICATOR]:iv]]}

The number of expressions must equal the number of host variables. This clause eliminates the need for selecting the rows after an INSERT or UPDATE, and before a DELETE when you need to record that information for your application. The DML returning clause eliminates inefficient network round-trips, extra processing, and server memory. You will also note, for example, when a trigger inserts default values or a primary key value.

The returning_clause is not allowed with a subquery. It is only allowed after the VALUES clause.

For example, our INSERT could have a clause at its end such as:

RETURNING EMPNO, ENAME, DEPTNO INTO :NEW-EMP-NUMBER, :NEW-EMP-NAME, :DEPT

See the DELETE, INSERT, and UPDATE entries in the appendix Appendix F, " Embedded SQL Statements and Precompiler Directives ".

5.3.4 Using Subqueries

A subquery is a nested SELECT statement. Subqueries let you conduct multi-part searches. They can be used to

• supply values for comparison in the WHERE, HAVING, and START WITH clauses of SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements

• define the set of rows to be inserted by a CREATE TABLE or INSERT statement

• define values for the SET clause of an UPDATE statement

For example, to copy rows from one table to another, replace the VALUES clause in an INSERT statement with a subquery, as follows:

EXEC SQL INSERT INTO EMP2 (EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, DEPTNO) 
         SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, DEPTNO FROM EMP 
         WHERE JOB = :JOB-TITLE
     END-EXEC. 

Notice how the INSERT statement uses the subquery to obtain intermediate results.

5.3.5 Updating Rows

You use the UPDATE statement to change the values of specified columns in a table or view. In the following example, you update the SAL and COMM columns in the EMP table:

EXEC SQL UPDATE EMP 
         SET SAL = :SALARY, COMM = :COMMISSION 
         WHERE EMPNO = :EMP-NUMBER
      END-EXEC. 

You can use the optional WHERE clause to specify the conditions under which rows are updated. See "Using the WHERE Clause ".

The SET clause lists the names of one or more columns for which you must provide values. You can use a subquery to provide the values, as the following example shows:

EXEC SQL UPDATE EMP 
      SET SAL = (SELECT AVG(SAL)*1.1 FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 20)
      WHERE EMPNO = :EMP-NUMBER
      END-EXEC. 

5.3.6 Deleting Rows

You use the DELETE statement to remove rows from a table or view. In the following example, you delete all employees in a given department from the EMP table:

EXEC SQL DELETE FROM EMP 
         WHERE DEPTNO = :DEPT-NUMBER
      END-EXEC. 

You can use the optional WHERE clause to specify the condition under which rows are deleted.

5.3.7 Using the WHERE Clause

You use the WHERE clause to select, update, or delete only those rows in a table or view that meet your search condition. The WHERE-clause search condition is a Boolean expression, which can include scalar host variables, host arrays (not in SELECT statements), and subqueries.

If you omit the WHERE clause, all rows in the table or view are processed. If you omit the WHERE clause in an UPDATE or DELETE statement, Oracle sets SQLWARN(5) in the SQLCA to 'W' to warn that all rows were processed.

5.4.1 Declaring a Cursor

You use the DECLARE statement to define a cursor by giving it a name, as the following example shows:

EXEC SQL DECLARE EMPCURSOR CURSOR FOR 
         SELECT ENAME, EMPNO, SAL 
         FROM EMP 
         WHERE DEPTNO = :DEPT_NUMBER
      END-EXEC. 

The cursor name is an identifier used by the precompiler, not a host or program variable, and should not be declared in a COBOL statement. Therefore, cursor names cannot be passed from one precompilation unit to another. Cursor names cannot be hyphenated. They can be any length, but only the first 31 characters are significant. For ANSI compatibility, use cursor names no longer than 18 characters.

The precompiler option CLOSE_ON_COMMIT is provided for use in the command line or in a configuration file. Any cursor not declared with the WITH HOLD clause is closed after a COMMIT or ROLLBACK when CLOSE_ON_COMMIT=YES. See "WITH HOLD Clause in DECLARE CURSOR Statements", and "CLOSE_ON_COMMIT".

If MODE is specified at a higher level than CLOSE_ON_COMMIT, then MODE takes precedence. The defaults are MODE=ORACLE and CLOSE_ON_COMMIT=NO. If you specify MODE=ANSI then any cursors not using the WITH HOLD clause will be closed on COMMIT. The application will run more slowly because cursors are closed and re-opened many times. Setting CLOSE_ON_COMMIT=NO when MODE=ANSI results in performance improvement. To see how macro options such as MODE affect micro options such as CLOSE_ON_COMMIT, see "Precedence of Option Values".

The SELECT statement associated with the cursor cannot include an INTO clause. Rather, the INTO clause and list of output host variables are part of the FETCH statement.

Because it is declarative, the DECLARE statement must physically (not just logically) precede all other SQL statements referencing the cursor. That is, forward references to the cursor are not allowed. In the following example, the OPEN statement is misplaced:

EXEC SQL OPEN EMPCURSOR END-EXEC.
*    -- MISPLACED OPEN STATEMENT
      EXEC SQL DECLARE EMPCURSOR CURSOR FOR 
         SELECT ENAME, EMPNO, SAL 
         FROM EMP 
         WHERE ENAME = :EMP-NAME
      END-EXEC.

The cursor control statements (DECLARE, OPEN, FETCH, CLOSE) must all occur within the same precompiled unit. For example, you cannot declare a cursor in source file A.PCO, then open it in source file B.PCO.

Your host program can declare as many cursors as it needs. However, in a given file, every DECLARE statement must be unique. That is, you cannot declare two cursors with the same name in one precompilation unit, even across blocks or procedures, because the scope of a cursor is global within a file.

For users of MODE=ANSI or CLOSE_ON_COMMIT=YES, the WITH HOLD clause can be used in a DECLARE section to override the behavior defined by the two options. With these options set, the behavior will be for all cursors to be closed when a COMMIT is issued. This can have performance implications due to the overhead of re-opening the cursor to continue processing. The careful use of WITH HOLD can speed up programs that need to conform to the ANSI standard for precompilers in most respects.

5.4.2 Opening a Cursor

Use the OPEN statement to execute the query and identify the active set. In the following example, a cursor named EMPCURSOR is opened.

EXEC SQL OPEN EMPCURSOR END-EXEC. 

OPEN positions the cursor just before the first row of the active set. However, none of the rows is actually retrieved at this point. That will be done by the FETCH statement.

Once you open a cursor, the query's input host variables are not reexamined until you reopen the cursor. Thus, the active set does not change. To change the active set, you must reopen the cursor.

The amount of work done by OPEN depends on the values of three precompiler options: HOLD_CURSOR, RELEASE_CURSOR, and MAXOPENCURSORS. For more information, see their alphabetized entries in "Using Pro*COBOL Precompiler Options".

5.4.3 Fetching from a Cursor

You use the FETCH statement to retrieve rows from the active set and specify the output host variables that will contain the results. Recall that the SELECT statement associated with the cursor cannot include an INTO clause. Rather, the INTO clause and list of output host variables are part of the FETCH statement. In the following example, you fetch into three host variables:

EXEC SQL FETCH EMPCURSOR 
         INTO :EMP-NAME, :EMP-NUMBER, :SALARY
      END-EXEC. 

The cursor must have been previously declared and opened. The first time you execute FETCH, the cursor moves from before the first row in the active set to the first row. This row becomes the current row. Each subsequent execution of FETCH advances the cursor to the next row in the active set, changing the current row. The cursor can only move forward in the active set. To return to a row that has already been fetched, you must reopen the cursor, then begin again at the first row of the active set.

If you want to change the active set, you must assign new values to the input host variables in the query associated with the cursor, then reopen the cursor. When MODE=ANSI, you must close the cursor before reopening it.

As the next example shows, you can fetch from the same cursor using different sets of output host variables. However, corresponding host variables in the INTO clause of each FETCH statement must have the same datatype.

EXEC SQL DECLARE EMPCURSOR CURSOR FOR 
         SELECT ENAME, SAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 20
     END-EXEC.
     ... 
     EXEC SQL OPEN EMPCURSOR END-EXEC.
     EXEC SQL WHENEVER NOT FOUND DO ...
 LOOP. 
     EXEC SQL FETCH EMPCURSOR INTO :EMP-NAME1, :SAL1 END-EXEC 
     EXEC SQL FETCH EMPCURSOR INTO :EMP-NAME2, :SAL2 END-EXEC 
     EXEC SQL FETCH EMPCURSOR INTO :EMP-NAME3, :SAL3 END-EXEC 
     ...
     GO TO LOOP.
     ... 
 END-PERFORM. 

If the active set is empty or contains no more rows, FETCH returns the "no data found" Oracle warning code to SQLCODE in the SQLCA (if MODE=ANSI then the optional SQLSTATE variable will also be set.) The status of the output host variables is indeterminate. (In a typical program, the WHENEVER NOT FOUND statement detects this error.) To reuse the cursor, you must reopen it.

5.4.4 Closing a Cursor

When finished fetching rows from the active set, you close the cursor to free the resources, such as storage, acquired by opening the cursor. When a cursor is closed, parse locks are released. What resources are freed depends on how you specify the options HOLD_CURSOR and RELEASE_CURSOR. In the following example, you close the cursor named EMPCURSOR:

EXEC SQL CLOSE EMPCURSOR END-EXEC. 

You cannot fetch from a closed cursor because its active set becomes undefined. If necessary, you can reopen a cursor (with new values for the input host variables, for example).

When CLOSE_ON_COMMIT=NO (the default when MODE=ORACLE), issuing a COMMIT or ROLLBACK will only close cursors declared using the FOR UPDATE clause or referred to by the CURRENT OF clause. Other cursors are unaffected by a COMMIT or ROLLBACK and if open, remain open. However, when CLOSE_ON_COMMIT=YES (the default when MODE=ANSI), issuing a COMMIT or ROLLBACK closes all cursors. For more information, see "CLOSE_ON_COMMIT".

5.4.5 Using the CURRENT OF Clause

You use the CURRENT OF cursor_name clause in a DELETE or UPDATE statement to refer to the latest row fetched from the named cursor. The cursor must be open and positioned on a row. If no fetch has been done or if the cursor is not open, the CURRENT OF clause results in an error and processes no rows.

The FOR UPDATE OF clause is optional when you declare a cursor that is referenced in the CURRENT OF clause of an UPDATE or DELETE statement. The CURRENT OF clause signals the precompiler to add a FOR UPDATE clause if necessary. For more information, see"Mimicking the CURRENT OF Clause".

In the following example, you use the CURRENT OF clause to refer to the latest row fetched from a cursor named EMPCURSOR:

EXEC SQL DECLARE EMPCURSOR CURSOR FOR 
         SELECT ENAME, SAL FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'CLERK'
     END-EXEC. 
     ... 
     EXEC SQL OPEN EMPCURSOR END-EXEC.
     EXEC SQL WHENEVER NOT FOUND DO ... 
 LOOP.
     EXEC SQL FETCH EMPCURSOR INTO :EMP-NAME, :SALARY
     END-EXEC. 
     ... 
     EXEC SQL UPDATE EMP SET SAL = :NEW-SALARY 
         WHERE CURRENT OF EMPCURSOR
     END-EXEC.
     GO TO LOOP.

5.4.6 Restrictions

An explicit FOR UPDATE OF or an implicit FOR UPDATE acquires exclusive row locks. All rows are locked at the open, not as they are fetched, and are released when you commit or rollback. If you try to fetch from a FOR UPDATE cursor after a commit, Oracle generates an error.

You cannot use the CURRENT OF clause with a cursor declared with a join since internally, the CURRENT OF mechanism uses the ROWID pseudocolumn and there is no way to specify which table the ROWID relates to. For an alternative, see "Mimicking the CURRENT OF Clause". Finally, you cannot use the CURRENT OF clause in dynamic SQL.

5.4.7 A Typical Sequence of Statements

The following example shows the typical sequence of cursor control statements using the CURRENT OF clause and the FOR UPDATE OF clause:

* --  Define a cursor.
     EXEC SQL DECLARE EMPCURSOR CURSOR FOR 
         SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP 
         WHERE EMPNO = :EMP-NUMBER
         FOR UPDATE OF JOB
     END-EXEC.
* --  Open the cursor and identify the active set.
     EXEC SQL OPEN EMPCURSOR END-EXEC.
* --  Exit if the last row was already fetched.
     EXEC SQL
         WHENEVER NOT FOUND GOTO NO-MORE
     END-EXEC.
* --  Fetch and process data in a loop.
 LOOP.
   EXEC SQL FETCH EMPCURSOR INTO :EMP-NAME, :JOB-TITLE
       END-EXEC. 
* -- host-language statements that operate on the fetched data
       EXEC SQL UPDATE EMP 
          SET JOB = :NEW-JOB-TITLE 
          WHERE CURRENT OF EMPCURSOR
       END-EXEC. 
       GO TO LOOP.
     ...
 MO-MORE.
* --  Disable the cursor.
   EXEC SQL CLOSE EMPCURSOR END-EXEC. 
       EXEC SQL COMMIT WORK RELEASE END-EXEC.
    STOP RUN.

5.4.8 Positioned Update

The following skeletal example demonstrates positioned update using the universal ROWID, which is defined in "Universal ROWIDs":

...
 01  MY-ROWID SQL-ROWID.
...
     EXEC SQL ALLOCATE :MY-ROWID END-EXEC.
     EXEC SQL DECLARE C CURSOR FOR
        SELECT ROWID, ... FROM MYTABLE FOR UPDATE OF ... END-EXEC.
     EXEC SQL OPEN C END-EXEC.
     EXEC SQL FETCH C INTO :MY-ROWID ... END-EXEC.
* Process retrieved data.
...
     EXEC SQL UPDATE MYTABLE SET ... WHERE ROWID = :MY-ROWID END-EXEC.
 ...
 NO-MORE-DATA:
     EXEC SQL CLOSE C END-EXEC.
     EXEC SQL FREE :MY-ROWID END-EXEC.
...

5.4.9 The PREFETCH Precompiler Option

The precompiler option PREFETCH allows for more efficient queries by pre-fetching rows. This decreases the number of server round-trips needed and reduces memory required. The number of rows set by the PREFETCH option value in a configuration file or on the command line is used for all queries involving explicit cursors, subject to the standard precedence rules.

When used inline, the PREFETCH option must precede any of these cursor statements:

• EXEC SQL OPEN cursor

• EXEC SQL OPEN cursor USING host_var_list

• EXEC SQL OPEN cursor USING DESCRIPTOR desc_name

When an OPEN is executed, the value of PREFETCH gives the number of rows to be pre-fetched when the query is executed. You can set the value from 0 (no pre-fetching) to 9999. The default value is 1.